A comprehensive impact assessment was presented last year (IWC/41/21 and IWC/41/SE1) centered on the four STCW communities situated at Abashiri (in Hokkaido prefecture), Ayukawa (Miyagi), Wada (Chiba) and Taiji (Wakayama). This report will not repeat the detailed findings presented last year though a brief summary of conclusions is provided below, and those items pertaining to the STCW situation contained the the Executive Summary of IWC/41/21 are provided as Appendix 1 for reference.

SUMMARY OF IMPACTS OF MINKE WHALE ZERO-CATCH QUOTA
A short summary of Japan's presentation to last year's Working Group on Socio-economic Implications of a Zero Catch Limit is provided in the Chairman's Report on IWC 41. In the interest of conciseness, this summary is reproduced here.

Japan reviewed the socio-economic implications of the moratorium in its country. It was pointed out that the moratorium affected the spiritual, psychological, physical and cultural well-being of people who depend upon whaling. A report prepared by Japanese and foreign social scientists characterized the socio-economic dislocations at four levels; the individual, the family, the community, and at general (national) levels. While pelagic and large-type coastal whaling stopped in 1987, small-type continued until 1988 when Japan implemented a zero-catch limit for minke whales. In Japan the zero-catch limit has affected individuals economically, socially, culturally and in respect to health. The effects include disruption and failure of small businesses, job loss and employment at less valued positions and/or limited work in temporary or seasonal positions. Because of the nature of small-type whaling the zero-catch limit affects individuals in small villages more than in the industrial centres. The small size of the local economy has required physical moves for individuals and families in order to find employment. High levels of unemployment for former whalers result from the highly specialized nature of their work and barriers to re-employment due to age and the particularities of Japanese employment and fisheries practices. As whalers enjoyed prestige, their job loss is especially stressful. Within the family interpersonal stress, disruption of rigid gender related division of labor and stress on children occurs. Local businesses depending on whale products have been severely affected and the loss of revenue threatens the survival of such institutions as fishery cooperative associations. Tourism is highly dependent upon the availability of whale meat which also plays an important role in religious observances and community celebrations. These impacts pose a serious threat to the continued survival of these traditional small communities. (Chairman's Report of 41st IWC Meeting, page 4)

The Chairmans Report indicated that in discussion there was a recognition that the reported socio-economic impacts were of a serious nature and that it is a responsibility of government to address these difficult situations. It was also noted that some dislocations cannot be satisfactorily remedied and that cultural, traditional and religious lifestyles may be irreversibly changed as a result. The report concluded "the impacts of zero-catch limits are greater in sociological terms in rural areas where local economics and traditions are linked to the natural resources, than in large and more industrialized communities." (ibid: 5)

COUNTERMEASURES TO REDUCE IMPACTS
Since the imposition of the zero-catch quota, effective April 1988, a number of actions have been taken by the whalers, and local governments in the four STCW communities and by the national government. This report will provide information on the measures adopted and assess the results.

Individual initiatives
(1) Fish-farming: Salmon-farming was started in Ayukawa by one of the large-type whaling companies as a means of providing employment to some of their former employees when commercial whaling ceased; only four former large-type coastal whalers could be employed, and some small-type coastal whalers have found seasonal, part-time work in salmon farming. Three small-type whaling boat-operators (one from Ayukawa, another from Wada in association with an Ayukawa partner) entered this business in 1988; by 1989, a total of 1,640 tons of salmon were produced in Ayukawa by several small and larger scale operations.

In 1988 salmon farmers received 900 Yen/kg, but the price dropped to 620 Yen in 1989. All three STCW-associated companies reported losing money in 1989, and since then one has declared bankruptcy and the other two have indicated they cannot continue losing money for another season.

Local production costs in Ayukawa are calculated at about 800Yen/kg, which unfortunately was the retail price of the preferred wild red salmon imported from Alaska. The less preferred farmed coho salmon was only selling at 560 Yen/kg (or 75 percent of the cost of production). One STCW boat operator has produced 420 tons of coho salmon over the past three years yet has registered a cumulative loss of 50M ($350,000) Yen in his salmon farming business over that time period.

The reason for the failure of salmon farming in Ayukawa is the high production cost, the availability of preferred wild salmon at lower cost, and the world glut in farmed salmon driving the cost down further each year. Oshika Town had allocated 10M Yen in loans to those wishing to engage in salmon farming but it seems evident that this money will not now be recovered.

Last year it was reported (IWC/41/21: 5) that some former whalers were earning about two-thirds of their previous wages through employment in salmon-farming. Unfortunately, as the situation described now indicates, that particular employment option is unsustainable for those former whalers and their reduced level of earnings has only been provided at the expense of the economic viability of the company employing them which will likely not continue in operation much longer.

(2) Other fishery activities: Two STCW operators have attempted to use their boats for other fishing activities. One Taiji-based boat attempted to fish for tuna, but to do so required investment in expensive new equipment and a test season indicated that no profit was to be made. In fact several local and experienced tuna-fishing operators have recently gone bankrupt, so the prospect for a former STCW boat operator succeeding and paying for required capital expenditures are, realistically, quite low.

(3) Economic rationalization: The main economic option followed by STCW operators since the minke zero-catch quota reduced the whale harvest tonnage by almost half has been to form partnerships in order to more rationally harvest Baird's beaked whale and pilot whales (see Table 1). This has allowed pairs of boat-owners in partnership to operate only one of their tow boats with corresponding reduction in operating costs. Crew members have been laid off and maintenance work on the boats has also been reduced to a minimum. In this reduced-scale operation, the partnerships returned to modest profitability in the 1989 season, in contrast to the losses incurred by six of the eight boat operators in 1988 of 63.4M Yen ($420,000).

Local government initiatives
Inquiries at each town indicate that local plans are underway to promote economic development. The small towns (Ayukawa, Taiji and Wada) have experienced more profound impacts caused by the reduction in coastal whaling activity than has the larger town of Abashiri. In the case of Abashiri, impacts are concentrated primarily in the core whaling community (the whalers and their immediate families, and some associated small businesses) and secondarily, and (as with the Ayukawa-based fishery) more widely, among the large number of consumers of the fresh whale meat. In view of these differing circumstances, it is evident that Ayukawa, Taiji and Wada municipal governments have made greater efforts to institute countermeasures to the negative impacts than have the town officials in Abashiri (however, see below under Tourism Development).

(1) Ayukawa: This STCW town (population ca. 2200) has been the most seriously affected of the four towns by the moratorium on commercial whaling and the 1988 imposition of the STCW minke whale zero-catch quota.

One local government initiative has been to try to develop a tourist attraction in the hope of attracting a larger share of the domestic (Japanese) tourist market. The center piece of this local initiative has been Whale-land, an amusement area with a whale and whaling theme. Dominating the amusement area is a landed catcher boat, and other attractions are planned to be constructed in the future.

The main problem associated with tourism development in Ayukawa is the lack of easy access to the town and the absence of additional tourist attractions in the immediate area (see below under Tourism Development).

A serious problem is the town's remoteness; tourists arriving at the closest rail station have likely already travelled some distance from populated urban centres, and from the rail station they must undertake a two-hour car ride or use the infrequent and slower public bus system.

Ayukawa serves as one base for reaching a well-known island shrine (Kinkasan), but many tourists choose to sail from the neighboring town of Onagawa (which has better road access to the railway) after which they may not choose to leave the better road or extend their trip by visiting Ayukawa.

Local people believe that in view of the problems of access, exploiting Ayukawa's special appeal as a 'whaling town' will depend on more than the presence of a whale-motif amusement park, and, in particular on the presence of active whaling and the continued availability of a whale-based cuisine. In these regards then, Ayukawa is disadvantaged compared to Wada and Taiji which continue coastal whaling with pilot and Baird's beaked whales thus ensuring that the local cuisine can continue to attract and satisfy visitors' expectations.

Ayukawa also suffers from a relatively inhospitable climate; boats have a 20 percent probability of not being able to sail for Kinkasan island shrine in the summer, and the frequent cold and foggy summer weather requires alternative indoor amenities not available in so small a village. The existing whale museum requires considerable expenditure to make it visually and educationally attractive; at the present time its clientele consists principally of busloads of students on compulsory visits, as indicated by the almost constant month-by-month visitation records.

Following the failure of the local salmon-farming enterprises, the town government now has plans to construct some tanks to try and farm shellfish (abalone) and sea urchins. However, both these marine products are harvested locally in the wild state, so the economic viability of the enterprise remains to be demonstrated.

Taiji: The town of Taiji (population ca. 4,400) has produced an ambitious economic recovery plan based on three inter-related components, namely:

(1)

A world-class cetacean and whaling-related research and educational facility;

(2)

A continued small-scale local whale fishery;

(3)

Tourism involving (1) and (2) above.

Taiji has made some progress in respect to the first of these goals. A national planning conference was held under the auspices of the Wakayama Institute for Social and Economic Development and funded by the National Institute for Research Advancement. A report on this planning conference has been published and a fund-raising program appears to be underway.

Taiji is well suited to tourism (see below, under Tourism Development) given its rail connections to major population centers (e.g. Osaka, Nagoya) and airports. It is also widely known in Japan as the birthplace and spiritual center of Japanese whaling.

Wada: This small town (population ca. 3,000) continues to be involved in catching and processing Baird's beaked whale to supply the traditional dietary preferences of the surrounding (Awa County) communities. However, because the town served as a landing port for a LTCW sperm whale fishery until 1987, the economic contribution of whaling to the town and the local fishing economy has seriously declined (IWC/41/21: 28, 31-32) requiring that new economic activities be introduced.

Wada is connected by road and then rail to large population centers in the Tokyo region and has a mild climate and good beaches nearby. Town officials are hoping to boost local tourist visits by developing amenities that at present to not exist. These developments will require positive assessment of their profitability by private developers. At this time confidential discussions between a developer and the town council are being held.

However, these potential developments are likely to meet local opposition, due to the damage marina development may inflict on a carefully controlled traditional fishery, and other potential effects of an influx of tourists that residents believe the environment would likely be seriously impacted by increased tourism.

These local concerns may be something of a disincentive for a developer aware of the current strength of local residents' opinions.

Abashiri: The local authorities, though concerned about the importance of continued production of whale meat because of its local dietary importance, recognize the limited employment and economic significance of STCW to the city (population ca. 43,000) as a whole, especially as other local fisheries are also expecting problems at this time.

Due to the incapacity of the Abashiri-based fishery to expand, tourism is being promoted as a growth industry in Abashiri as in many other towns and cities in Japan. In the case of Abashiri, tourism is to be based on environmental assets; for example, on the forests, sea-scapes, especially the winter drift ice on the Sea of Okhotsk, and the rich cultural heritage of the region.

Whaling is included in this cultural heritage, with one section in the newly-built Museum of Northern Peoples likely to be developed to illustrate the history of Hokkaido whaling. The distinctive local diet, based on fresh minke whale meat is recognized as a significant element of the cultural heritage of Hokkaido coastal towns, and explains local concerns that coastal whaling resume operations.

National government initiatives
As in many countries of the world, industries large and small are constantly adjusting to changing demands for their product and consequent altered competitiveness in local, national and international market places. As a consequence of this reality, governments variously enact legislation to compensate, relocate, retrain or otherwise assist those affected by such industrial or vocational dislocations.

Coastal whalers in Japan are now subject to this same occupational problem, even though, unlike workers in many obsolete or non-competitive jobs, they worked in a well-regulated occupation uniquely satisfying a continuing consumer demand with a high-quality product at a reasonable price. Despite the consequent unusualness of their altered occupational circumstance (relative to other occupational groups), under the labor laws of Japan whalers receive the same consideration as any other laid-off workers, for to accord whalers special treatment would create inequities in the national system that would certainly be protested by the many steel-workers, fishermen, farm-workers, merchant mariners, ship builders or others whose jobs are also disappearing at this time.

This section of the report will discuss the national government's actions to mitigate the impacts of the zero-catch quota on three of the groups principally affected, namely, the whale-boat crew members, the boat-owners and the consumers.

Whalers: As detailed in last years report (IWC 41/21: 6-7; 9-13) whalers employed in Japanese STCW find themselves in a difficult situation once losing their employment: they tend to be occupationally specialized and lack formal qualifications, and they tend to be older (whalers average age 48; flensers 46 in 1990) and have few connections with others outside their communities who might assist in placing them in other employment. Few of the laid-off whalers have fared well in seeking new jobs. To summarize the current situation (see Table 2), of the 87 STCW workers employed on boats or at the shore stations at the time the zero-catch quota was imposed, 42 remain employed in whaling, (most at reduced levels of payment in cash and whalemeat). Among the 45 who have lost jobs in whaling, 13 have found full-time employment, 18 have part-time or seasonal work, and 10 remain unemployed. (The status of three former whalers is unknown.) The part-time and most of the full-time jobs (as watchmen (3), driver (1), sales clerk (1), etc.) lack security and are not well-paying, but are the best available to men of these ages lacking formal educational or occupational qualifications.

Unemployment benefits are paid for 12 months to those in full-time employment who lose their job; unfortunately STCW does not provide full-time employment, as the whaling season extends for only six months of each year. Thus even though whalers received wages for twelve months of each year (a wage plus bonuses and payment-in-kind during the whaling season, and a reduced 'retainer' for the rest of the year) government regulations define full-time employment as requiring continuous workplace employment on a twelve-month basis.

Thus those whalers losing jobs are only eligible for 3-6 months of payments under government regulations and given the limited re-employment prospects for men in their situation, their families' economic and social status has in almost every case deteriorated and at the present time shows no sign of improvement over that reported last year (op. cit.).

Boat owners: The principal economic assets of the eight STCW companies are the specialized whaling boats. In addition, three companies have a small landing station, and (in the case of Hokkaido) a cutting shed for shaping and boxing the meat. Receiving government compensation for their loss of business requires disposing of these assets. However in no case is this a realistic option, for in return for compensation the boat owner would be required to formally close his business and consequently surrender his operators licence.

Six of the eight STCW operations are small family-businesses; the seventh is operated by a Fishery Cooperative and the eighth is managed by a local whaler for a STCW and salmon-farming company (Nihon Kinkai). However, each boat operator's identity is as a whaler, which remains an honored profession in these coastal communities. STCW operations (albeit on a reduced scale) continue, utilizing pilot and Baird's beaked whales, and there is awareness, based on local environmental knowledge that following this pause in whaling, stock assessments will likely indicate that a viable coastal whale fishery could once again be sustained. In such circumstances, surrendering a licence in order to receive financial compensation is an unsound social and economic proposition. It is important to remember that in the Japanese context, STCW operators have continuing social obligations to provide members of their communities and important community institutions with whale meat; hence to accept financial compensation at the cost of continuing to honor those long-standing social commitments is unthinkable.

Consumers: A principally important role served by STCW operations is the seasonal supply of fresh whale meat in that local region served through each of several designated landing ports. Some of this landed meat is processed in the community and other portions may be processed and/or subsequently marketed elsewhere in Japan where that particular whale product is favoured in the regional cuisine. However, the unfilled local demand for fresh whale meat, and the requirement for frozen meat for ceremonial or continuing everyday use outside of the whaling season in these whaling districts, constitute a serious problem that the government has attempted to overcome in three ways.

The first way was by increasing the quota for Baird's beaked whales from 40 animals (the quota from 1983 until 1987) to 60 in both 1988 and 1989. As each beaked whale yields significantly more meat than does a minke whale, this increased beaked whale yield has provided needed assistance to the STCW operators and crews and to some consumers. However the meat of beaked whale is unfamiliar to many consumers who also lack appropriate knowledge of how to prepare the meat (it being a local food in southern Chiba prefecture), so not all consumers benefit equally from this particular countermeasure.

A second way of overcoming the shortage of traditionally-used minke whale has been through a highly controlled national distribution of frozen minke meat and blubber taken as a by-product of the Japanese antarctic research program, and utilized as required by IWC regulations. This national distribution, to consumers in all 46 prefectures on the main Japanese islands was outlined in detail last year (IWC/41/21: 66-69).

However, this distribution cannot satisfy the requirement for fresh whale meat in the diet, though it ensures that whale meat remains available (though in limited supply) to consumers in many regions of Japan.

In Ayukawa the distribution of frozen minke (under the authority of the town office though utilizing the facilities of the fishery Cooperative) goes directly to each household, with a supply provided to the local hospital, the school and local shrine in order to maintain these institutions' ability to provide expected levels of food and ritual service. Town officials are determined that school children benefit from the superior nutritional value of whale meat as well as not lose a taste for the meat.

The third way in which the national government has attempted to reduce the negative impacts of the zero-catch quota is to authorize whaling on a separate stock of pilot whale to that fished in the Ayukawa area. Thus an authorized landing station opened in southern Japan (Kyushu) in 1989 and a quota of 50 pilot whales was allocated to this fishery.

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
The specific plans for tourist development in the four whaling towns has been outlined earlier in this report. However, there is a particular context within which domestic tourism in Japan operates, and some of these background considerations should be considered when assessing the likelihood that tourism will succeed in supporting the socio-economic revival of towns that have been impacted by the significant reduction in whaling-derived local economic activity.

Successful tourist development in Japan is based upon concentration of meaningfully attractive and accessible amenities; often hot-spring resorts are a required component in association with significant scenic, historic and recreational opportunities. Having a suitable climate for enjoying the scenery and other amenities is an important consideration.

Tourist development in Japan is required to be undertaken by private business developers. The role of government is restricted to setting standards to be met, and thereby regulating the entrepreneurial activities of the private sector; government financial involvement is limited to providing defined infrastructure (e.g. grants to assist in constructing access roads to resort areas) or regulating the interest rate that banks can charge to private developers. Given that resort development is occurring all over Japan at the present time, it is clear that developers can choose widely where to invest, and secondly, they must be reasonably certain of making an acceptable financial return on their investment at minimal risk. Unfortunately, of the three whaling towns in need of tourist-related development, Ayukawa has the greatest need and yet is likely the least appealing for such developments. Ayukawa, as mentioned earlier, is difficult to access, it has no hot spring resort nearby, it has few recreational amenities, only one sacred site (Kinkasan) nearby, and no important pre-modern historic associations. The climate is a decidedly negative feature, with the confluence of the warm northward-flowing Kuroshio Current and the cold southward-flowing Oyashio Current occurring a few miles offshore providing frequent fog, rain and chill-winds throughout the year.

Wada ranks better as a tourist area due to the many beaches, mild climate, some historic associations and its relative ease of access. However, there exists the problem of local opposition to tourist developments that are perceived, by the residents, as politically unacceptable.

Taiji has most of the amenities desired by tourists: there are nearby hot-springs, impressive coastal scenery, historic sites, reasonable accessability and a year-round attractive climate. At the present time a large newly-constructed resort facility stands largely empty for much of the year just outside the town. Town officials have plans to increase the tourist appeal of the town by whale and whaling-centered developments to add to the existing facilities (a museum, aquarium and cetacean/sea lion performances) which also capitalize on Taiji's reputation as a whaling town.

There are two considerations which some residents of the whaling towns emphasize: the first is that each town, to the extent that it plans to emphasize its connection with whaling is, in a sense, competing with the other towns. Private developers know this is the case and will be well aware of each town's relative merits, (and demerits). Secondly, all seem to agree that whatever tourist developments do take place, there will be nothing of direct benefit to any whalers or former whalers unless active whaling is maintained. Many people see the successful future of tourism in these towns as being dependent in important ways (e.g. maintaining a distinctive whale-based local cuisine) upon continued whaling.

WHALE WATCHING
One component of tourism development that requires evaluation is the potential for whale watching, for the very location of these towns and the limited distance STCW boats can travel suggests the nearby presence of whales.

Whale watching has become established in several countries based on the inshore presence of suitable whale species, notably the large whales such as humpbacks, blue, fin, gray, and killer whales. In each case these large whale species are slow moving (ponderous in fact), spend some time at the surface, often allow close approach by boats, and predictably occur in the area feeding, mating or on migration in large numbers. Predictability (of occurrence) is important, for some whale-watching cruise operators offer a refund if no whales are sighted.

In the case of the whaling towns in Japan none of these favorable conditions for whale-watching appear to be met. No concentrations of large baleen whales occur in these minke, pilot or beaked whale areas, nor do even solitary animals of those other favoured species occur inshore within safe operational range of the STCW boats.

The whale species that do occur are quite unsuitable for whale watching and often require a trained eye to see at all. When seen, the minke whale is usually located by its 'spout' together with a small part of the mid-back section, after which it quickly dives if hearing the noise of an approaching motor, subsequently surfacing 2-3 miles distant after 10-20 minutes swimming under water. Due to the small size of the whales and the fleeting presentation when at the surface, minke can only be spotted (by professional spotters) within one nautical mile of the boat, and at that distance only when sea conditions are calm.

Baird's beaked whales on the other hand can be spotted up to six miles away and are much easier to see than are minke whales. However, beaked whales are very timid animals, and dive immediately the boat approaches, usually for 30-40 minutes, to reappear some miles from the boat, where the whales only remain on the surface for three or four minutes before taking another deep feeding dive. Any noise from the boat will cause the whales to disappear, so sensitive are they to noise. Baird's beaked whales off of Wada may be in small groups of 5-6 animals; the beaked whales in Hokkaido waters occur in smaller-sized groups (2-3 per group) and tend to remain on the surface for only half the time of the beaked whales in the Wada area, say one or two minutes between lengthy dives.

Pilot whale spouts can be sighted up to one mile distant on calm days and may be seen throughout the year off the pacific coast of Northeastern Honshu. The chances of encountering pilot whales are greatest in the fall months (September-November) when they approach to within five to ten miles offshore. At this season groups of pilot whales numbering around 20 may often be seen off Miyako or Kamaishi (about 100 and 80 miles north of Ayukawa respectively). However, the fall is a time of strong northeasterly winds and rough seas, and the distance from Ayukawa as well as the sea conditions are not conducive to whale watching in this region; when the wind causes waves, spotting distance decreases to 100-200 metres.

In the Taiji area pilot whales are seen during the spring (May-June) and fall (October-November). The actual presence of pilot whales however, is unpredictable due to year to year variation in the Japan current. Whereas pilot whales are not easily scared by boats in Northeastern Honshu waters, those in the Taiji area are easily scared and hard to approach.

CONCLUSION
A number of countermeasures have been introduced since the zero-catch quota for minke whales seriously undermined the social and economic sustainability of the small yet stable small-type coastal whaling operation in Japan's nearshore waters.

An assessment of the various measures taken to reduce the negative impacts of the minke whale zero-catch quota indicates:

(1)

Salmon-farming has not proved economically successful and has not benefitted former STCW either in terms of lost income or jobs.

(2)

Despite a continued fishery based upon small quotas of pilot and beaked whale, more than half the whalers engaged in STCW have lost their jobs as a result of the minke whale zero-catch quota imposed in 1988.

(3)

Most positions obtained by whalers losing their jobs are seasonal or part-time, low paying and without security or benefits associated with satisfactory employment.

(4)

Due to the limited (six-month) duration of the STCW season, laid-off whalers are ineligible for more than a few months of compensation under national regulations.

(5)

Boat owners are not eligible for part-compensation for the lack of livelihood resulting from the minke zero-catch quota, due to the requirement that they surrender their capital equipment and business licenses if receiving government compensation. The ongoing commitments boat owners have to various institutions and individuals in their home communities renders this option socially and culturally, as well as in a business sense, quite unacceptable.

(6)

The limited distribution of frozen antarctic minke meat as a by-product of the Japanese whale research program into the whaling towns provides much less meat than is required for a normalization of customary dietary requirements.

(7)

Efforts to promote tourism in the economically-troubled whaling towns does not appear promising¹.

(8)

Whale watching as a proposed countermeasure appears to have little practical value; the species of whale and the type of boats available, the shortness of the season and the sea conditions are all quite unsuited for satisfactory whale watching.

(9)

Whaling-operation watching, on the other hand, would likely assure these small communities a competitive position in the domestic tourism market notwithstanding their various disadvantages occasioned by their relative remoteness from established tour routes.

End note
1 This conclusion is in agreement with that made by Professor Nelson Graburn (of the University of California, Berkeley) an internationally recognized authority on Japanese tourism whose recently completed assessment of whale-based tourism in Japan is available as a supplementary document.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Government of Japan acknowledged the assistance of the following researchers who contributed to this report:

Dr. M. Freeman
Mr. S. Braund
Ms. M. Iwasaki

Thanks are also expressed to the mayors, town officials and residents of the whaling towns mentioned in this report for their helpful co-operation.

APPENDIX
Executive Summary of Report to the Working Group on Socio-economic Implications of a Zero Catch Limit (IWC/41/21, edited to delete exclusively non-STCW impact statements)

Executive Summary
Small-type whaling continued to operate as a stable fishery until the 1988 season, when an IWC-imposed zero-catch limit for minke whale reduced the production of this coastal fishery by almost half.

The result of these restrictions on whaling has caused a number of direct and indirect impacts of a social, economic, cultural, and health-related nature which adversely affect whalers and their families, whale-related small businesses and other institutions in the whaling towns.

Small-type coastal whaling employed 75 full-time and 38 part-time seasonal workers in 1987, the last year of this stable fishery, before the zero-catch limit was imposed on the minke whale quota, at which time small-type whalers lost their jobs in the summer of 1988.

Some small-type whaling operations rehired some of their workers for the late summer/fall Baird's beaked and pilot whale fishery in 1988; however the 50 percent of workers rehired received salaries reduced by as much as 50 percent. In addition, the supplemental pay and bonuses, including shares of whale meat, were considerably reduced in 1988 for those whalers otherwise fortunate enough to be rehired.

Small-type coastal whalers in most cases are ineligible for government unemployment benefits, and due to the small-business nature of the small-type whaling operations, did not receive large dismissal allowances.

Those whalers not re-employed in the fashion described above, have sought employment in a variety of low-paying occupations, often in temporary, part-time or seasonal work. Some have left their home communities, with or without their families, moving to larger centers in the hope of finding better job prospects. All are having to rely on savings at the present time, which given their ages, involve the peak years of family expenses when their children are in or entering high schools or universities.

The average age of former whalers is the late forties, though a large proportion are in their fifties. Due to their financial obligations, many wives of former whalers have had to take low paying, part-time jobs and work for long hours. This situation causes various profound interpersonal and emotional stress in these families, due to the sudden reversal of roles in a society having rigid traditional norms concerning gender-related household divisions of labor.

There are serious barriers to re-employment of former whalers, due to the highly-specialized nature of their work, their lack of networks outside of the whaling profession, the over-capacity of Japanese fishing and merchant marine industries, and the particularities of Japanese employment and fishery practices.

A number of stress-related health problems are reported among former whalers who are unable to find suitable employment. Some occupational-health problems are also reported among the middle-aged former whalers now undertaking unfamiliar and physically-demanding new jobs.

The emotional stress caused in families of unemployed whalers affects husband-wife and parent-child relationships. Children worry about their parents' changed financial circumstances at a crucial time in their schooling when their attention and concern need to be fully directed to the all-important high-school and university entrance examinations.

Officials in some whaling communities report the recent appearance of hitherto unknown anti-social trends among some young people and in families of unemployed whalers. Whaling towns historically have been entirely free of such tendencies due to the high status and prestige enjoyed by whalers in Japanese society and history.

Whale meat remains the favorite food of all age groups in the whaling towns and districts; it is both a preferred everyday food, and a required ingredient in special dishes served on various religious or ceremonial occasions.

Whale meat is especially important in gift-exchange ceremonies which have an important place in the social life of whaling towns. The interruption in supplies of whale meat has seriously compromised these ceremonial occasions with a corresponding loss of community solidarity at a time when massive economic dislocations caused by the whaling ban seriously threatens the continued viability of these small remote communities.

Economic problems in the whaling towns are caused by job and wage losses to whalers, flensers, meat processors and distributors, retailers and the various businesses depending upon the local circulation of revenues generated from whale-related occupations.

Whale-meat processors are affected by the shortage in supplies of whale meat, the non-availability of certain products with cessation of large-type whaling and the increasing price of other whale products as the supply diminishes. This has resulted in loss of employment in meat-processing firms, reduced wages to employees, large and risky financial investment in new equipment in attempts to diversify, and uncertainty in regard to future business success.

The meat processors in some locations have for generations processed locally valued specialty products. The interruption in supplies now threatens the continued existence of these multi-generational small family businesses and the small-scale distributors (peddlars) who have supplied rural populations with the traditional staple whale-meat products at low cost.

These local specialty foods are also important for tourism development in these remote towns which must compete for tourism revenues with towns better endowed with tourist facilities and attractions.

Losses of cash income and free supplies of whale meat distributed locally affect the income of these boarding establishments and their ability to provide the whale-meat dishes tourists expect to enjoy when visiting these traditional whaling communities. Tourists report concern should the whale-meat cuisine not be obtainable on their future visits.

The various business enterprises affected by the interruption in whale-meat supplies are for the most part small family businesses; in one whaling town for example, three-quarters of the 175 businesses employed two or less employees, and less than three percent of businesses employed more than five employees.

The tradition of family businesses in Japan places a strong moral value on ensuring the business, inherited from ancestors, is nurtured and passed on in sound health to succeeding generations. This is true for whalers, flensers, food processors, retailers of traditional products or others who inherit family businesses. The present threat to the continuation of such family occupations is a cause for intense anxiety, shame and a sense of moral failure on the part of family-business owners whose businesses are failing due to the economic consequences of the whaling moratorium.

In the whaling towns, whale production accounts for a significant proportion of the revenues of the local Fisheries Cooperative Associations (FCA) to which belong the several hundred local fishermen as well as whale-boat operators. The FCA operates the local fish market, provides ice and freezer storage for fishermen, and serves as the principal financial institution for its members.

With regard to health impacts, whale meat is generally considered a superior source of animal protein than is agriculturally produced meat. Because whale meat was largely available free (as gift items) in the whaling towns, the interruption in supplies now causes people to purchase substitute meats. Due to the financial problems in these towns the inexpensive, fatty, meals are increasingly being purchased, with causes concern to health officials as obesity, high blood pressure and elevated cholesterol levels begin to appear among elderly residents.

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